HOGAN

The first hogan consisted of a fork-stick frame, a pyramid with 5 triangular faces. The first two logs are fork-tipped logs placed to the north and a straight male log to the south. The male log is joined into the female fork at the top, symbolizing a strong partnership between a man and a woman, husband and wife, in their future home. Another fork-tipped log is placed from the west (called “Sundown”). Two logs are positioned for the open door frame in the east, two more logs placed over the door to frame the entrance, and a final log goes crosswise at the top of the chimney.

To protect it from the elements it was packed with adobe, dirt or clay depending on the location of the community. There are male and female Hogans. Most ceremonies take place within the Male Hogan, it is more aggressive in nature. The Female more nurturing, where the family lives, is loved, food preparation. (Photo right, is a winter Hogun)

Modern Hogans are much more sophisticated, It is still circular but made of lumber and other modern construction items. Hogan doors always face the East to greet the morning sun.

WHO USED THEM? Diné (Navajo) 

TIPI

WORD ORIGIN – TIPI originates from the Lakota language: TI – meaning ‘to dwell or live’; PI – meaning, ‘used for’. TIPI means ‘used to live in’. Indigenous to the people of the Plains, including: Lakota, Assiniboine, Gros Ventre, Crows, Hidatsa, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Kiowa, Apache. Much later: Commanche, Utes, Shoshone, Nez Perce, Flathead, Cayuse, Umatilla, Kutenais.

TRADITIONAL TIPI – is a tilted cone, steeper at the back, with the smoke hole extending some distance down the more gently sloping side, or front of the tipi, and with two flaps called smoke flaps, ears, or wings. The smoke hole above could be adjusted to keep smoke in or to let it out. Built on upwards of fourteen poles each usually 24′ in length.

The tipi was an ideal shelter because it could be used in both hot and cold weather, particularly in the winter when extreme winds blew across the plains. Areas of domestication of the Plains Indians tended to revolve around mobility because the Plains Indians followed the migratory path of their food source, (primarily buffalo or bison). Encampments were usually constructed in a circle or semi-circle, with a fire in the centre which provided heat and a meeting place. Other fire pits were located near or inside individual tipis for cooking and drying. A Tipi faced east to receive the morning sun with its back to the prevailing high winds.

The outside was created by layering animal skins, which were often painted in bright colours to show the personalities of the owners. Anywhere from 8-20 different animal hides were used to cover a tipi. Tipis were primarily erected and taken down by the women! 

Contrary to popular belief the hides were not heavy – the tanning process was so fine that although it might rain heavily, water would not pass through nor stiffen the hide, but rather upon drying would remain soft and pliable as before. The weight was approximately 50 pounds, the maximum that could be borne by a large dog, which prior to the introduction of the horse in the 1600s, was the primary method of transportation. (see Size below).

SIZE: Average width was between 12 and 18 feet. Early indications were that the tipis were quite small before horses replaced dogs as draft animals and, therefore, could carry heavy loads.

CANVAS: With the destruction of the Buffalo and the substitution of canvas for hides, the tipi still remains much the same in appearance. Also, canvas was lighter than buffalo hide, and made it possible to erect larger tipis, (between 20-30 feet in diameter). Tipis went out of common with the Plains people during the first two decades of the 20^th century, but it is still a major cultural identifier and icon.

WHO PUT ‘EM UP, WHO TOOK ‘EM DOWN – THE WOMEN! – I sing an honour song for these tough warrior women. I am clearly not worthy!

DESIGN, ETIQUETTE, ALTAR, FIRE
Hanging from the top of the lining in the rear of the lodge is a bull-hide shield, a tobacco bag, a medicine bag, and several other little pouches. In the corners between the backrests are rawhide boxes made in pairs. Religious and sacred objects were stored and hung in the rear of the lodge. Men’s weapons were stored on the north side, because MEN SAT IN THE NORTH. Women’s belongings were stored on the south side, BECAUSE WOMEN SAT IN THE SOUTH. Wood was stored on the south side near the door.

TIPI AS A TEMPLE: The floor represented Mother Earth; the sides of the tipi represented Father Sky; the poles represented the trails between Mother Earth and Great Spirit (Wakan Tanka).

The Altar was directly behind the fireplace – a little space of bare earth. Usually in the shape of a square pulverized and brushed clean. Lakota called it ‘the square of mellowed earth’. It represented Mother Earth, sweet grass, sage and cedar were burned as incense to the spirits.

If door open, friends could simply walk in. If door closed, they called out or rattled the door covering and waited for an invitation.

WHO USED THEM? Plains Tribes, Plains Cree, Oji-Cree, Nez Perce

WIGWAM

The word “Wigwam” comes from the Mi’Kmaq “Wiknon” meaning dwelling. Housing reflected a need for mobility. Most common was the domed-shaped dwelling known as a wigwam. Generally, saplings were driven into the ground and then bent and tied together. Sheets of birch bark were used to cover the structure (both sides and roof). They also built tipi-shaped structures as well also covered with birch bark. The English word “wigwam” comes from the Mi’kmaq word “wiknom” meaning a dwelling

1. Ojibwa, Innu (Montagnais and Naskapi), Abanaki, Métis. Domed dwellings that were originally covered with sheets of wigwass (birch bark), Hence the name ‘wigwam’. Wigwass was important throughout an Ojibwa’s life, from the decoration found on the cradle to the ‘winding sheet’ made of bark used as a shroud. Ojibwa travelled in birch bark canoes and fashioned the versatile material into boxes, posts, buckets, scrolls and torches.

2. Swampy and Woodlands Cree of Hudson’s Bay are also used wigwam, but covered them with moose hide or caribou skins because of the scarcity of birch bark in the north. The Plains Cree used a fifteen pole tipi, with each pole representing a sacred teaching. For example, obedience, respect, humility, happiness, love, faith.

3. Mi’kmaq used efficient portable bark-covered wigwams, so light they could be rolled up and transported. five spruce poles, lashed together at the top with split spruce root and spread out at the bottom. A hoop of moosewood was tied under the poles just down from the top to brace them. Shorter poles tied to the hoop all around provided supports for the birch bark cover. Birch bark sheets were laid over the poles like shingles, starting from the bottom and overlapping as they worked up the wigwam One-family dwellings primarily; large ones could hold up to twelve people. Floor of fir branches with hides placed over these for beds.

4. Lenape-Delaware lived in Wigwams, although some preferred the Haudenosaunee Longhouse because more people could be fitted in.

Abenaki Wigwam

Lenape Wigwam

The birch bark canoe (in spring and summer) was Indigenous to the Cree, Haudenosaunee, Lenape, Anishinaabe and Métis cultures in the interior of Canada. It was light, swift and easily portaged (carried) between waterways. The canoes were made in all sizes, from small, single person canoes to an incredible size that could carry up to 50 paddlers. These canoes ranged in length between 10 and 24 feet. Larger canoes required a huge amount of labour even though the materials were readily available. The task of building a giant canoe included: gathering the bark and root lashings, carving the man boards and laminating the prow pieces, bending and lashing the gunwales and inserting the hand-carved thwarts, stitching up the seams and gores, ripping and laying the cedar planking, bending and inserting the 30 or more ribs, and caulking the seams and holes with pine gum, and finally decorating by etching or painting the bark. In winter travel included: snowshoes, toboggans and sleds in winter.

Smaller birchbark or spruce bark canoes for hunting or raiding parties could be made

more expediently because there was no planking or elaborate designs in small canoes. The small canoes were not as durable but with care could last up to five years.

Without the canoe, the opening of Canada from sea to sea would have been extremely difficult if not impossible. Sails were added in the 17th century.

INUIT

Umiak – large open boats made of seal or walrus skins; these boats were usually handled by women. They were used to transport the dogs, together with tents and other supplies and equipment. Occasionally they were used for hunting.

Kayak – light canoe made by stretching skins over a wooden framework. The photo is of a seal skin kayak

MIKMAQ

The wide bottomed Mi’kmaq canoe was raised at both ends and the sides curved upwards in the middle. This shape allowed the Mi’kmaq to canoe far out to sea as well as in shallow streams and even in rapids. Canoes were 3m to 8m long, made of birchbark over a light wooden frame. A small canoe could take a load of several hundred pounds but was light enough for one person to carry. In winter travel included: snowshoes, toboggans and sleds.

PACIFIC NORTHWEST COAST

Canoes are both a sophisticated art form and a symbol of cultural identity reflecting local needs, sea conditions, and skills. Although there are a variety of canoe types depending on tribal formats and traditions, canoes are one of the three major form of monumental art among Northwest Coast Indigenous people. The other two being plank houses and totem poles. The technology of building such huge canoes is older than time. The canoe provides the maximum amount of boat for the minimum amount of material and represents unity and teamwork, as well as strength and health. Western red cedar is the material of choice. The trees grow on average between 8′-10′ in diameter and rise up to 200-300 feet in height. The building of the canoe is led by a master carver along with two assistants. I takes approximately 2 months to build a 25′ canoe.